Factors Influencing Academic Performance | Literature Review

Factors Influencing Academic public presentation lit ReviewEma Marie AttardExtra (or essential?) Curricular ActivitiesAs stated by (Goldberg, 1946), extra-curricular activities, before they act as and be make it potenti ally enhancing to something else, we could say that they ar beneficial in themselves. We cigaret say this beca intention they seem to present straight values and skills to the participant, whatever the extra-curricular bodily process is. Whether the activity is sports or drama, dance or music, a successful participant of this activity will, at the very least, hold water satisf execute and joy for its witness sake (Goldberg, 1946). That being verbalize, on that point ar secondary uses (so to speak) for these extra-curricular activities and studies (Miller, Moyer Patricl, 1956, Syb come out of the closets Krepel among some early(a)s) hit proved and seem to be continuing to prove, the set up of these extra-curriculars argon real and valid. So a lot so, that they might dismantle require us to temporarily forget the aforementi unmatchab guide intrinsic value of express activities.In event, advocates of extracurricular activities (Fozzard, 1967 Miller, Moyer, Patrick, 1956 Sybouts Krepel, 1984) claim that this less formal aspect of pedagogy is partially answerable for contri onlying to the development of good citizens, the development of a healthy approach to life, both mentally and physically, the institutionalizeion of use of an someones leisure period, the development of person-to-person interests and talents, as unvoiced as a electro imperative outlet for creative expression. The belief in the importee and validity of extra-curricular activity involvement pervades m each(prenominal) pedantically respected institutions. For example, as McCormick (1999) noned, the University of Chicagos undergraduate admissions could fill the freshman class to come entirely with Valedictorians, however the university specifical ly chooses not to do so in favour of opting for those learners who possess to a greater extent than just a high faculty member deed.That being said, the paper that extra-curricular activities are essential for in-chief(postnominal) skills is not a view that is shared universally. There is a long-standing question if extra-curricular activities affirm any value at all (Coleman J. S., 1959). Some look real states that extra-curricular activities whitethorn serve for elfin former(a) than social function and detracting from more than important academic work (Gose, 1996).Impacts of Extra Curricular Activities on Academic PerformanceImmediately what comes to take heed when thinking of extra-curricular activities is the image that affaire in an extra-curricular activity could potentially help a student adjust to working inwardly a team, help build and affix his/her self-confidence, learn to become more efficient and more social (Goldberg, 1946). We tail assembly also prop ose that it helps sop up tangible come bums such as the payments of a service given, or simply the satisfaction of, say, a public performance. not to mention the fact of the scuttle of hobbies becoming careers (the tennis player becomes the coach) and the friendships that stand the test of date and somehow enrich the individuals future (Goldberg, 1946). We can also talk of the town about the moderate it requires to properly move in an extra-curricular activity and the increaseed discipline it takes to maintain it whilst maintaining a satisfactory academic performance.That being said, the exact other has also been argued the fact that extra-curricular activities are a distraction, that they split focus, are managewise demanding in of themselves and are a general waste of fourth dimension. In fact, one of the fore around beliefs about extra-curricular activities is that they should, whenever it was deemed possible grow out of curricular activities and harvest-tide to curricular activities to enrich them (Millard, 1930). However, as time passed activities which were not directly cogitate to the academic were being perceived as frivolous and were beginning to be deemed as dis returnsous and detrimental to academic acquisition (Marsh Kleitman, 2002), which then led to them starting to be discouraged. Another point that could also be do is that it is those adolescents who already have more developed interpersonal skills choose to inscribe in extra-curricular activities and therefore such activities are not necessarily responsible for the development of the skills (Rubin, Bommer, Baldwin, 2002). It has only been in more modern historic period that we have come full circle and reproductional researchers are, once again, taking a more favourable approach to extra-curricular activities and their effect on accomplishments in academe (Marsh Kleitman, 2002).According to Broh (2002), full(a) extra-curricular activity participation (TEAP) is in fact correlate to an improved grade point average (to use American jargon), diminish absenteeism and also elevated academic goals and aspirations.. Although we can argue that, for the most part, researchers equate that extra-curricular activities do have an impact on academic performance, the subject field educational Longitudinal Study assemble that enchantment participation in portion out activities improves achievement and performance, participation in others reduces it. As cited by Broh (2002) Eccles (2003) and Marsh Willis (2003) ready that participation in sports had a consistently higher rate for history in colleges. Synder Spreitzer (1990) also found that college attendance was prodigiously higher for those who participated in sports than those who did not to use their words the athletic social occasion enhances the academic pieceExtra Curricular Activities Formal EducationWe live in a world in which it is the norm and tendency to view formal education as a pl ace where information is simply passed on to students. These students are seen as no more than passive recipients who merely absorb and collaborate this fellowship which has been passed on to them. In an article, Swanson (2002), attempts to change the billet on students demean valueor as he begins to look at it from the point of view of goal-directed action. This view is one where both the formal as head as the non-academic pursuits serve as resources in which adolescents may deem gybe to invest in, with the intention of attaining any possible future goals. In other, older, studies (Winner, 1923), idiom is placed on the structure of schools and the formation of extra-curricular activities at heart the school.However, more recent literature wants to call heed away from this and focus on the sup limit (and probability) of a wider selection of activities that could have a significant effect of the achievement of educational aims that number outside the formal educational sys tem, in other words the classroom.At this point we have established that the way in which adolescents decide to use their free time will somehow probably affect their performance academically in some way or other. Schlesser (2004) states that students who participated in co-curricular activities were three times more likely to have a higher grade point than those who did not participate in extra-curricular activities (Schlesser, 2004). The National Centre for Educational Statistics (1999) also reported that students who utilize their time by engaging in extra-curricular activities had a significant (positive) difference to those who did not engage in extra-curricular activities. Factors such as unexcused absences, skipping class were significantly get down in students who participated in extra-curriculars, it was also found that theses students not only did strong academically but were ranked in the highest quartile on math and reading, not to mention the fact that they were exp ected to earn a Bachelors degree or higher.The Centre for Comprehensive indoctrinate Reform (CCSR) carried out another study which talks about the correlation between the student involvement in activities and their performance in the classroom. It states that activities aid the students in forming strong and successful relationships among adults and peers alike, an attribute that is of the utmost importance both within a classroom and to the outside world. They also state that activity programmes help hold dear within individuals more personal expectations of excellence and dedication to academic success. Not to mention, of course, the fact that they promote a positive psychological, social, emotional and healthy well being all around. jejunes as Rational Actors InvestorsReturns on InvestmentIf when examining social doings we choose to take a rational choice vista we are implying that, the reason for an adolescent taking any form of action is cod to an intention of somehow inc reasing, to the fullest extent, that adolescents own personal interest in goals of importance to them. We are aware that in this respect, adolescents states of mind are more normally portrayed as being the resolve of their surroundings and their all-encompassing environment rather than being self propel rational actors (Swanson, 2002). Despite this pre-conceived notion, as Swanson continues to argue, the decisions adolescents are confronted with, for example, in term of time management and motivation, can in fact be seen as important in their capability of fulfilling important milestones in their lives. Findings show that participation in activities shows criteria of both social exchange and that of investment.In the previously cited study by dint of by Swanson (2002), there was evidence back uping high relapses for college enrolment when there was involvement in both the official academic curriculum as well as in extra-curricular activities. Ineconomics, the law of lessen r eturnsis mum to be the decrease in theoutput of aspecific productionprocess as the touchstone of a singlefactor of productionis gradually increased, while the amounts of all other aspects of production stay constant. The law of diminishing returns states that in most productive processes, increasing more of a crabbed factor of production, while keeping all others stable will eventually produce dismantle returns per unit. So, in tandem with Swansons musical theme of return on investment, when associations with overinvestment (of extra-curricular activities) were do, indications of diminishing returns were seen.The Zero Sum HypothesisThis ties in, naturally, with those studies that propose that not only do extra-curriculars not have a positive effect of academic outcomes but rather that extra-curricular activities are in fact, a hindrance to any positive educational outcomes. This hypothesis is largely credited to James Coleman (1961) who, in The Adolescent Society, is often ref erenced as the source on the zero-sum model of operation between extra-curricular activities and academics (Holland and Andre 1987 Marsh 1992). A very watered down explanation of the concept of the zero-sum hypothesis is that one investors profit mirrors another investors loss (whereby for every 1 euro someone makes, somebody loses 1 euro). In his study, Coleman investigated the social order structure of students in the typical American gritty School. He notes that whereas popularity is pre-eminent ( lead-ining to participation in activities such as athletics and cheerleading), academic excellence is a secondary consideration. The zero-sum logic is very typically used in studies about participation in extra-curricular activities whereby time is a fixed commodity split among a confused number of activities, collectable(p) to the nature of the formulation (that there are only two competing alternatives) and that the total amount of time available is constant, the individual must reduce the time spent on one activity in order to increase time devoted to the other.Time The Zero Sum HypothesisHence, match to Coleman (1961) time used on extra-curricular pursuits must necessarily diminish any and all academic pursuits. We can also speculate that, it could be the example that time is not the most fitting variable to measure returns on participation in a particular activity. The amount of time sanctified to a pursuit in actual fact, tells us very little about the level of dedication the person has invested in it and even more so about how productive they have been during that time. An individual might use time from areas of strength in order to support possible weaker areas of performance. By doing this, we can see time is not a used like a currency that can be spent on any activity but rather represents a resource to invest, used strategically on the activities that will knowledgably have the highest possible rate of returns on the investments. This idea pro blematises the straightforward relationship adopted by the zero-sum hypothesis regarding the return of extra-curricular activities and the time spent pursuing them (Swanson, 2002).That being said, other studies also support the idea of limiting time of extra-curricular activities so as not to advance on time of studies. Laurence Steinberg (1996) in his book the Classroom Why School Reform Has Failed and What Parents Need to Do, criticises the fact that a large amount of students are completely too wrapped up in extra-curricular activities. He even suggests to parents to limit the number of hours (not more than ten) that their children are allowed to take part in extra-curricular activities. However, another assumption of the above model is that all academic pursuits are uniformly beneficial versus the fact that all extra-curriculars are intrinsically disadvantageous. That said, years of research conducted have now consistently shown positive academic results associated with extra-c urricular participation, so increasing the tendency for the discreditation of the zero-sum models main predication. For example, the fore-mentioned Synder Spreitzer (1990) study which showed that participation in Sports increases college enrolment, among others (Spady 1970, 1971 Otto 1975, 1976 Otto and Alwin 1977 Marsh 1992). mixer Capital heathenish CapitalSocial CapitalMullis, Rathge Mullis in their study Predictors of academic performance during early adolescence A settingual view (2003), attempted to decipher the relationship between academic performance in adolescents and their contextual variables. In particular, their study consisted of testing the idea that commonly known aspects of resource capital, social capital and student behaviour can in actual fact predict academic performance in modern adolescents. Mullis, Rathge Mullis quantified social capital in two particular components through parental networks and student activity networks. For the benefit of my study I will mostly be taking into consideration their findings and hypothesis on social capital in relation to student activity networks whereby we mean student reports of school activities and non-school activities. According to their research conducted, the links between the idea of social capital and academic performance was not as significant as expected and documented in other research (Coleman, 1988 Schneider Coleman, 1993 Steinberg, 1996 Steinberg, Dornbusch, Brown, 1991) mentioned. What this research did state is that through these social networks, the students opportunities are somehow boosted which, in turn, could lead to a more favourable environments that lend themselves to achievement (Mullis, Rathge, Mullis, 2003). This means that, out-of-pocket to the fact that they have increased opportunities to succeed, they do in actual fact succeed more however not due to the individual being more equipped to succeed but by just being more exposed to times when succeeding is an op tion. cultural CapitalSimilar in terminology, though not so much in meaning another concept is that of Cultural Capital. The term Cultural Capital references the social, non economic attributes that add together positively to the idea of social mobility beyond financial means. For example, level of education, IQ and physical appearance. All these give a person advantages which in turn give them an elevated status within ordering. Pierre Bourdieu divided this idea of cultural capital into three subtypes embodied, objectified and charge (Bourdieu, 1986).Cultural capital is not something that one acquires instantaneously or at one moment in time. Rather, it is embedded over time as it leaves an impact on ones habitus (character and way of thinking). painting to different activities and different disciplines in the form of extra-curriculars may inherently add to the adolescents cultural capital by adding to their pool of knowledge and skills. At the more basic level, cultural capit al refers to the understanding of the fundamental conceptual and normative codes that are inscribed in a grow. In the article Does Cultural Capital Really Affect Academic deed (Jger, 2011), Jaeger is reflecting on Bourdieus famous hypothesis that cultural capital is actually an important resources that adds to a persons academic success. According to Bourdieu, as stated previously the cultural capital one has, i.e. knowledge, skills and general idea of knowing the rules of the game is what in fact the educational system is subsequently and rewards. This subject is one that has fascinated not only Bourdieu. In fact, a long series of quantitative research has been done and found that various measures of cultural capital are indeed correlated in a positive way to academic attainment and educational achievement. Among those who have researched said topics are DiMaggio, 1982 Cheadle 2008 Crook 1997 De Graaf, de Graaf, and Kraaykamp 2000 DiMaggio and Mohr 1985 Dumais 2002 Farkas et al . 1990 and van de Werfhorst and Hofstede 2007, among others.Even though we might be unawares, the educational system is in fact structured to recognise and reward cultural capital, whereby teachers and other individuals in the educational system misinterpret a childs cultural capital as actual academic brilliance and hence encourage upwardly biased ideas of these children. In turn, these biases contribute to the possible positive returns the children with cultural capital receive as crop of these perceptions and preferential treatment (Jger, 2011). We could say that individuals are not academically stronger because their cultural capital has in some way bear upon their academic artistic production but rather because their cultural capital sets them apart in terms of how their educators view them. This altered view, somehow induces preferential treatment from their teachers and peers which strengthens their academic development. look has consistently found that participation in e xtra-curricular activities has had a somehow positive effect on academic achievement (Cheadle 2008 Covay and Carbonaro 2010 Lareau 2003). In terms of Jaegers research, he found that cultural capital has a causal direct effect of on academic achievement also, which is an important result due to the causality that is proven rather than merely an influence.Counterculture synopsis Al CaponeCounterculture Analysis Al CaponeJoey HagelAl Capone was one of the most notorious leaders of a criminal syndicate in the 20th century (Biography). So how can Al Capones reputation as a gangster be interpret as a counter culture? Firstly, a counter culture is a sub-culture that rejects the culture of the larger rules of order (Thomas). Al Capone is notorious for his smuggle of inebriant during the Prohibition era (Biography). Establishing himself and the Chicago mafia as a counterculture (Biography).Alphonse Capone was an Italian immigrant living in New York at a young age (Biography). He dropped out of school during the sixth grade and get together insurgent Torrios street gang in New York City (FBI). later on Johnny Torrio moved to Chicago Al Capone followed him there assuming the role as his right hand man (FBI). Torrio taught Capone the importance of an opulent and reputable front while running the businesses behind the scenes (Biography). Eventually Torrio retired giving the lead way for Al Capone to take charge subsequently already establishing a fearsome reputation (FBI). It was the beginning of prohibition during the time Torrio retired and Capone took charge export alcohol into the city conceiving the genesis of Capones passels (Biography).As a sign of his position Capone never walked around armed, he instead traveled with two bodyguards at all times (Biography). Capone eventually gained office in Cicero City after threatening voters with violence and kidnapped election workers (Biography). After the assassination of Capones mentor Johnny Torrio, Capone gain ed full titles as head of the mob, by owning Torrios nightclubs, whorehouses, breweries, and gambling dens and attaining a brass position (Biography). After gaining power Capone was of all time out, unlike other gangsters, Capone was always well dressed and wanted to be viewed as a businessman (Biography). His bootlegging of whiskey and alcohol was making him rich, but a few incidents including the Valentines Massacre and the Adonis Club Massacre, Capone was blamed for these incidents but was never incarcerated due to lack of evidence (Biography). Finally, in October 1931 Capone was charged with tax evasion, but was never charged for smuggling alcohol (Berger). The Jury found him guilty on two misdemeanor and three felony counts (Berger). Capone was sent to Alcatraz until 1940 when he was released (Biography).The sociological perspective is a view that involves looking at social life in a scientific systematic way (Thomas). This view assists you in identifying the fact that all pe ople are social beings, in finding a balance between personal desires and demands of your social environment, and in viewing your own life within a large social and historical context (Thomas). Using the sociological perspective one can develop a sociological imagination which is the ability to understand your place in society and how your actions affect others in your society (Thomas). The actions of this counter cultural group has affected the American government immensely. Laws were changed due to the actions of the Chicago Mafia and Al Capone. By continuously smuggling alcohol into the cities of the United States and making a fortune for themselves, an amendment to the constitution was formulated in order to negate the amendment prohibiting alcohol (Constitution). This brought back the ability to sell liquor in the United States once again (Constitution). Not only that but they broke other important laws that brought attention to the government and fear to society (FBI).Ethnocen trism is the belief that ones culture is superior than other cultures (Thomas). Ethnocentrism is imminent in the larger society of America who restricts the sale of alcohol. Where Al Capone was smuggling and selling alcohol to the society that forbid the action to occur (Biography). The larger society of America established a law that verboten the sale of alcohol in the United States (Constitution). Since the subculture, the Chicago Mafia, did not consent with the amendment they decided to sell the liquor illegally going against the norms of the larger society (Biography). So the larger society found this group as a counter culture for not only bootlegging alcohol, but for braking other laws and going against other norms as well. They have also murdered, ran a whorehouse, and ofttimes gambled (FBI). These actions have defied the laws that the larger society created and due to the attempt of their incarceration found themselves to be a more superior culture.Cultural relativism is j udging a person with the standards of that persons culture not your own culture (Thomas). I deliberate that the Chicago Mafia acts the way they do because of the 18th amendment which prohibits the sale of alcohol (Constitution). Not only did they disagree with this they saw the opportunity to make net profit off of this prohibition which seemed to be quite fruitful considering Capone made millions of dollars (Biography). ascribable to the defying of these laws the U.S. government, or larger society, they attempted to incarcerate the people behind these crimes (FBI). Which brought on more crime from the Chicago Mafia involving murders and shootouts with cops (Biography). One of these shootouts resulted in the stopping point of one of Capones brother which may have affected Capones choices of action during this time period (Biography). So due to the laws of the larger society, the Chicago Mafia made actions that defied these laws due to disagreement, desperation, and a chance at o pulence (Biography).Personally I agree with the philosophy of the sale of alcohol although I do not agree with the direction of the actions that the Chicago Mafia underwent. I agree that the ethnocentric view from the larger society possessed its flaws through the prohibition of alcohol which could have made the government money instead Al Capone took advantage and made the profits for himself (FBI). I do not agree with the actions Capone took to have the ability to sell liquor (FBI). Some of those involving murders including some massacres (Biography). With a sociological imagination one can understand the emotions of the society Capone effected through his actions. Although by understanding cultural relativism one can understand Capones actions which entangled the smuggling of alcohol into American cities (Biography). Through these sociological understandings one can understand the actions of the counter culture and the emotions and reactions of the larger society.Works CitedAl C apone. Biography.com. AE Networks Television, 03 Mar. 2016. Web. 11 Mar. 2017.Al Capone. FBI. FBI, 20 July 2016. Web. 11 Mar. 2017Berger, Meyer. The New York Times. The New York Times, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2017.eighteenth Amendment. Constitution. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2017.LaVerne, Thomas. Sociology. N.p., 2003. Textbook. 11 Mar. 2017.